MEDICI ASSASSINTION SOLVED

Italian experts puzzled out a bloody crime committed 526 years ago.
The intrigue of a plot conspired against the Medici brothers, Juliano and Lorenzo has been solved. As a result of the plot, Juliano was killed and Lorenzo was saved by a miracle and became the ruler of Florence known by the title Lorenzo the Magnificent.


An assassination upon the Medici brothers was committed on April 26, 1478. It was supposed earlier that Pope Sixtus IV (known as Francesco della Rovere in the world) who stayed on the Saint Peter's throne from 1471 to 1484 was behind the assassination. The pontific wanted to glorify his nephew Girolamo Riario and was considered connected with the assassination as he could benefit from it.

Expert for medieval Italy Marcello Simonetta discovered a coded letter in the municipal library in Urbino, the native place of Raphael, that helped him solve the ancient drama. The researcher decoded the letter and identified the author.

The secret letter contained a well-considered plan of assassination of the Medici brothers; it was addressed to two envoys of Urbino principality at court of Sixtus IV in Rome. The instruction was made up by Duke of Urbino Federico di Montefeltro whom the world knows from the portrait painted by Pierro della Francesca, ITAR-TASS reports.

Marcello Simonetta published the text of the letter in The Italian Historical Archives and caused a sensation in the scientific world. In the above mentioned letter the duke warned that in case of delay "the Pope will face hostility of Florence, Milan and Venice."

LEONARDO'S LAPTOP

(1) Discuss what you understand “the old computing” to be.
(2) Discuss what you understand “the new computing” to be.
(3) Similar to how Leonardo da Vinci foresaw inventions such as the plane and
helicopter 500 years ago, it has been said that Vanaver Bush described the World
Wide Web and digital cameras in his 1945 “The Atlantic Monthly” article, “As
We May Think.”
a. Do you think that in the future Bush will be regarded in a manner similar
to how we regard Da Vinci today?
b. Discuss the value or lack thereof that you place on the person who
envisions an idea without implementing that idea.
(4) Describe a scenario that you would like technology to be able to support in the
future. Describe what you and it would do without worrying about whether we
have the technology to do it as of yet.
(5) A mere 72 pages of Leonardo’s writing fetched over $30 million in 1994. It is
estimated that he created over 13,000 pages of works over his lifetime (though
fewer than 5,000 pages survive).
a. As more and more work is committed to electronic media, do you think
electronic documents will exist in the future that will be so highly valued?
b. The fragile nature and uniqueness of paper could make the existence of
around 35% of da Vinci’s work impressive. If he had the ability to store
his works on computers, discuss whether you think the percentage of his
writings available today would be higher or lower and explain your
reasoning.
(6) Discuss what you see as one of the greatest dangers of the direction technology’s
infusion into society could hold. Do you think the potential benefits of
technology warrant taking the risks of developing it?

PART 2.
(1) What have been the five most frustrating experiences you have personally had
using modern technology?
(2) Keep a log for three days in which you make entries for frustrating experiences
you have (a) with computers, (b) with other technologies, and (c) with traditional
items such as paper. At the end of this period review your logs and discuss what
changes (if any) you plan to make in your daily activities based upon these
observations.
(3) There exist forums for reporting problems of various sorts.
a. Describe a situation in which you would write to the Better Business
Bureau about a store and what response you would hope for.
b. Describe a situation in which you would write to Underwriters Laboratory
Inc. about a device and what response you would hope for.

PART 3.
(1) Think back to your educational experiences to date.
a. What was one of the most rewarding educational experiences?
b. Was technology involved? If so, how?
c. Can you imagine some way in which technology could have made this
experience better, or enable this experience to be applied to other less
rewarding educational experiences? If so, how?

RAPHAEL


SAVONAROLA


SAVONAROLA


SHAKESPEARE


SHAKESPEARE

LORENZO MEDICI


MICHELANGELO




PETRACH


RAPHAEL

LEONARDO DA VINCI


FRANCIS BACON




COSIMO DE MEDICI


CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE

JOHN DONNE


COSIMO DE MEDICI


CASTAGNOS CUMAEAN SIBYL


CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE


MICHELANGELO'S DAVID


PETRACH

RENAISSANCE HISTORY QUIZ

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Check it out.
QUIZ TIME

RENAISSANCE

Introduction

The period of European history referred to as the Renaissance was a time of great social and cultural change in Europe. Generally speaking, the Renaissance spanned from the 14th to the 16th centuries, spreading across Europe from its birthplace in Italy. During the Middle Ages, Italy was not the unified country that it is today. The Italian Peninsula was instead made up of a number of independent city-states, most of which were ruled by powerful families.

The period of time during which the European Renaissance fell was between the end of the Middle Ages (or medieval period) and the beginning of the Modern Age. For some historians, the European Renaissance is considered as the dawn of the Early Modern Era.

What does 'renaissance' mean?

The term 'renaissance' is derived from the French word meaning 'rebirth'. It is used to describe this phase of European history because many of the changes experienced between the 14th and 16th centuries were inspired by a revival of the classical art and intellect of Ancient Greece and Rome. Much of the art, architecture, literature, science and philosophy that surfaced during the Renaissance was so reminiscent of this ancient past, that it seemed as though Europe was indeed reborn during the late Middle Ages.
The Renaissance in the broad context of European history

Looking at where the Renaissance falls within the general timeline of European history helps you to understand why it occurred and the important influence it has since had on the course of European history.

In a very general sense, the history of Europe can be divided into three main ages. These ages are known as the Classical Age (also referred to as Ancient Europe), the Middle Ages (also referred to as the medieval period) and the Modern Age.

According to the majority of historians, the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century BC marked the end of the Classical Age and the beginning of the Middle Ages. It is also generally accepted that the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries sparked the dawn of the Modern Age. Many historians believe that the Renaissance and Reformation (refer to Topic 3) represent a transitional phase of European history, between the late Middle Ages and the early Modern Age.

What was the Renaissance?

The Renaissance was a time of great social and cultural change in Europe. It was a period characterised by innovation, imagination and creativity. The Renaissance was also a time during which Europe's classical past was revisited and reinvigorated. Much of the inspiration behind cultural movements of the Renaissance came from people's attempts to emulate (imitate and improve) the legacies of classical European societies, such as Ancient Rome and Greece.

The Renaissance also represented a break away from the conformist society and culture of medieval Europe. A conformist society is one in which people strictly follow established rules and practices. Breaking away from this mould, the Renaissance was a time during which new and inventive ideas began to spread and gain influence. Gradually, this decreased the dominance previously held by the Catholic Church.

Where did the Renaissance begin?

The European Renaissance began in Northern Italy in the 14th century. The Tuscan city of Florence is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance. Gradually, the movement spread from Italy to other parts of Europe. In Italian, the period is referred to as il Rinascimento, (refer to Chapter 2 for more detail on the origins of the Renaissance).
What changes did the Renaissance bring?

The most notable changes experienced during the Renaissance were in the fields of art and architecture, literature, philosophy and science. In was in these disciplines that new trends and fresh styles emerged, inspired by Europe's ancient history.

Art

Unlike the artistic styles of the earlier Middle Ages, which placed more importance on symbolism than reality, renaissance art was more life-like and contained perspective. Painters began to depict the human form with increasing accuracy, which was enabled by a better understanding of human anatomy. This anatomical knowledge was gained from advances made in the field of medicine during the Renaissance period. Much of this new knowledge can be attributed to the pioneering Renaissance figure, Leonardo da Vinci.

Literature

The Renaissance was also a time of great literary change. Writers and poets looked back to the poems and texts of Ancient Greece and Rome. Renaissance literature dealt much more with human characteristics and behaviours, shifting away from the religious and metaphysical subjects of earlier Medieval books, poems and plays. With the invention of the printing press in the 1440s, information suddenly became much more accessible to the general public, which had a huge impact on the field of education.

Philosophy

Philosophical trends also changed during the Renaissance. New ways of thinking, sparked by a philosophy known as humanism, altered the way in which people thought about human beings and the universe. During medieval times, the Catholic Church had been the major force influencing people's thoughts and beliefs on these matters. Unlike the Catholic faith, however, humanism did not promote the notion that humans are naturally sinful and it also placed a lot of emphasis on finding reason.

With the spread of humanistic thought, the medieval emphasis on spirituality was gradually replaced by a focus on the more physical characteristics of humans. The field of study now referred to as the humanities (history, social sciences, the arts, literature and languages) is derived from the term humanism. The philosophical changes which occurred during the Renaissance also paved the way for another shift in thinking that was experienced in Europe at the turn of the Modern Age. This later revolution was known as the Enlightenment.

Science

Science and engineering were other fields that experienced major changes during the Renaissance. Many new and exciting discoveries were made, mainly in the areas of anatomy, astronomy and physics. Breakthroughs in engineering also paved the way for many of the world's most significant inventions, such as telescopes, clocks and spectacles. Pioneering Renaissance scientists and inventors included Galileo Galilei and Leonardo da Vinci.

Striving for perfection

In 1507 an Italian writer named Count Baldassare Castiglione published a famous book called 'The Courtier'. In this book, inspired by his observations of peoples' public behaviour, Castiglione outlined the manner in which he believed 'perfect' men and women should behave. With the invention of the printing press half a century earlier, it was not long before 'The Courtier' had been read by many people across Europe.

After reading this influential book, many followers were inspired to become as physically and intellectually perfect as possible. Men such as Leonardo da Vinci and Leon Battista Alberti represented the perfect 'Renaissance man'. Both were multi-talented in a number of fields.

Why was there a renaissance in Europe?

The Middle Ages of European history was a time characterised by conformism. People who displayed creativity or diverged (moved away) from established methods of thinking and behaving, were often punished or outcast from society.

The early Middle Ages were a time of fear in Europe and many people beleived that mythical creatures existed in an underworld. The world was thought to consist of only three continents, and the Earth, not the Sun, was considered to be the centre of the solar system. Many of these medieval beliefs were proven untrue during the Renaissance.

Until the Renaissance, most Europeans followed the teachings of Catholicism because they had little exposure to any form of education beyond this. Science was not a well-understood concept and very little of what the Church taught people about life was challenged. Those who spoke out against the Church were accused of heresy and labelled a heretic (someone who holds unorthodox beliefs). Heretics were often subject to extremely severe punishments, such as being tortured or burned at the stake in front of the townspeople.

During the Renaissance, however, things started to change. The 14th through to the 16th centuries in Europe were a period of questioning and discovery. People started to think independently and experiment with new ideas and concepts. As more and more advancements were made in the arts and sciences, the Catholic Church began to lose the overwhelming power and influence it had once held over people's beliefs about the world.
Was there more than one renaissance in Europe?

The word 'renaissance' is derived from a French word meaning rebirth. It essentially means to revive, revisit or reinvigorate and could therefore be applied to many societies, to describe different stages of their histories

Many parts of Europe underwent a period of renaissance between the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern Age. When viewed together, these movements form an overall period of renaissance in Europe. The rebirths of different areas were, however, quite distinct from one another. They did not all occur at exactly the same time and in exactly the same manner.

For this reason, some historians speak of a series of renaissances in Europe. This is why you may have heard people use the terms Italian Renaissance, French Renaissance and English Renaissance, instead of speaking of a general European Renaissance.

THE BEGINNINGS-NORTHERN ITALY

Introduction

Many people associate the Renaissance with the modern-day country of Italy which, at the time if the Renaissance, was made up of a number of independent city-states. Despite this, often when people think about the Renaissance, famous Italian artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Donatello and Michelangelo spring to mind, as does Italian Renaissance architecture and famous merchant families like the Medicis of Florence. While the Renaissance was a period of monumental change in many other parts of Europe as well, there is good reason for its common association with Italy. This is the small Mediterranean country where Europe's Renaissance began, where it flourished and where its legacy can be seen most clearly today.
Italy during the Renaissance period

During the Renaissance period, the Italian Peninsula was comprised of a combination of independent city-states, which were usually ruled by a family. The Medicis, for example, were a wealthy merchant family who ruled the city of Florence for part of the 15th and 16th centuries.




The beginnings of the Renaissance

The Renaissance (in Italian, il Rinascimento) began in the northern city-states of Italy in the early 14th century and gradually spread throughout Western Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries. Its exact origins can be traced to the famous Renaissance cities of Genoa (Genoa), Florence (Firenze), and Venice (Venezia).

There are a few explanations for why the European Renaissance began in Italy. These are linked to Italy's ancient history and its advantageous geographical position during the Middle Ages - in the centre of the rich and bustling Mediterranean Sea. See animation one






Italy's glorious past

Much of the inspiration behind the Renaissance was sought from a revision of Europe's ancient societies. Ancient Rome, of which Italy was the centre, was one such society; it is considered one of the greatest empires in the history of humankind. All across Italy, evidence of this classical past can still be seen today in Ancient Roman ruins such as the Forum and the mighty Colosseum.


Towards the end of the Middle Ages, remnants of Italy's glorious past provided stimulation for artists, architects, scientists, writers and philosophers. These Renaissance creators did not, however, simply want to imitate the past, they wanted to emulate it. This means that they wished to pay tribute to Europe's pre-medieval and what many considered 'superior', history, so that they could improve upon it and move forward. This yearning to break free of the darker, more rigid culture of the Middle Ages was what inspired people to question, create, explore and discover new ways of thinking and doing things during the Renaissance.
Italy's geography

Italy was also extremely well-positioned geographically during the Middle Ages, lying at the centre of many important trade routes between Western Europe and the Near East. Due to its long coastline, Italy also possessed a great deal of naval strength, which had spurred a thriving commercial sector and given rise to a wealthy merchant (or trading) class.

By the 14th century, trade was flourishing in cities such as Genoa, Venice and Florence. The merchant classes, confined largely to well-to-do families, became extremely wealthy and started to gain more social and political influence. These merchant families became the patrons of artists, architects and inventors, sponsoring them so that they could put all their time and energy into excelling at their passions. The rise of the merchant classes and patronage is explored in more depth later (refer Topic one, Chapter three).
The Renaissance spreads






As the Renaissance spirit spread throughout Italy, artists and intellects from across Europe flocked to the northern cities of Venice, Florence and Genoa in search of new ideas and inspiration. Some of these people also travelled to Italy in the hope of finding a patron (rich merchant sponsor) to nurture their talents.

Traders and bankers from other Western European countries also began heading to Italy, lured by the hope of making their fortunes like the wealthy and influential Italian merchant classes were doing.

When these visitors returned home, they spread word of the exciting social and cultural movements that they had witnessed in Italy. Inspired by what they had seen and experienced, they told stories which created enthusiasm and sparked periods of renaissance in places like Britain, France, Germany and the Netherlands.

LEONARDO DA VINCI

Introduction

Leonardo da Vinci is remembered as one of the greatest masterminds of Renaissance Europe and one of the greatest intellectuals in European history. Described by those who knew him as a gentle man who excelled in everything he put his sharp mind to, Leonardo was considered a genius of many fields. The contributions he made throughout his lifetime to the schools of science, mathematics, engineering, botany, architecture and visual arts cannot be overestimated. Naturally gifted, multi-talented, open-minded and forward-thinking, Leonardo da Vinci truly was the original 'Renaissance man'.

A genius is born

Leonardo da Vinci was born in Italy in April 1452. He lived during a period of Italian history commonly referred to as the 'High Renaissance' period. Leonardo did not have a surname; da Vinci simply means that he is from the town of Vinci, which is located near Florence in Italy's central-north.

Leonardo was born out of wedlock and raised by his father, a lawyer named Piero da Vinci. When Leonardo was 12 years old, his father decided that they would move from Vinci to Florence. In the mid-15th century, Florence was a vibrant, artistic city at the forefront of the Italian Renaissance movement.

Florence - humble beginnings as an artist

Leonardo's natural artistic talent and intelligence was apparent from a young age. Within two years of moving to Florence, the heart and soul of Italian Renaissance art, Leonardo became a student of Andrea del Verrocchio, who was one of the city's greatest painters and sculptors. Leonardo was so naturally gifted, however, that it was not long before his skills surpassed those of Verrocchio.

At age 20, Leonardo ceased being a student and was sponsored by the Florentine patron, Lorenzo de Medici (refer to Topic one, Chapter three), who was referred to by locals as the 'Magnificent One'. For the next ten years, Leonardo was commissioned by Lorenzo to paint pictures and design buildings in Florence. During these years, however, he also spent time pursuing his own interests, many of which were not related to his career as an artist.



Milan - the inventor comes to life

In 1483 Leonardo moved to the northern Italian city of Milan. A possible reason for this move was that he believed Milan was less insular and more forward thinking than Florence was under the rule of the Medici family. Another possible reason is that Leonardo was attracted to the style of leadership displayed by Milan's ruler, Duke Lodovico Sforza, who became Leonardo's patron while he was in Milan.

Duke Sforza was known to be a strong military leader and nourished Leonardo's interest and talent in weapons design, mechanics and invention. Although Leonardo himself was a well-known pacifist (lover of peace), he produced many designs for powerful weapons and sophisticated armour while working for Sforza.

Milan was also where Leonardo painted the 'Last Supper', one of his better-known artworks. It is believed he painted this large fresco, which depicts a supper held during Jesus' last days, between the years of 1495 and 1497. A few years after this, Leonardo returned to Florence and painted what is undoubtedly his most famous work: La Gioconda (Mona Lisa). This was completed sometime between the years of 1505-1507.



France - Leonardo's last years

For the decade before his move to France in 1516, Leonardo moved between the Italian cities of Florence, Milan and Rome, depending on where he was commissioned to work. Whilst he was in Rome, Leonardo painted frescos for the Papacy (the office of the Pope) with Raphael and his former student, Michelangelo Buonarroti. It was during this time that Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City.


In 1516, Leonardo moved to France and spent the last years of his life working on his notebooks. This is where he recorded the thousands of ideas he had for bringing his radical projects to life. In these pocket-sized notebooks, Leonardo wrote in tiny font and from right to left. Rumour has it he did this either to hide his ideas from prying eyes, or because he was left-handed and liked to do everything in an unconventional manner, just to be different to other people.


While many of his designs were never completed during his lifetime, some have since been completed by other scientists and engineers. Many of them, although extremely advanced for his time, actually worked. Leonardo died in France in 1519, aged 67.
Interests and Inspiration

People who came into contact with Leonardo da Vinci often described him as a man who exuded grace, compassion and intellect. He was talented at just about everything he did and possessed a sharp, inquisitive mind. He was also confused about the world and constantly in search of answers to life's most complicated questions.

Although Leonardo did design weapons and military equipment, he was a devout pacifist (lover of peace) and often expressed his sadness at the inhumanity of mankind. He was also a vegetarian on moral grounds and loved animals. Countless stories have been told of how Leonardo used to buy caged birds at the local markets, just so he could set them free.

Leonardo was fascinated by the inner-workings of living things. He liked to watch birds flying, so that he could observe and sketch the way they moved through the air. He was also intrigued by human anatomy, which he learnt about by cutting-up and examining the bodies of dead people. These observations helped him depict natural things more realistically in his artwork. They also enabled him to understand the mechanical nature of bones, joints and muscles, which inspired many of his inventions.
Contribution to humankind

In terms of his understanding of the human body and medicine, Leonardo was far more advanced than doctors of his time, who still believed diseases to be magical or supernatural phenomena. Prior to Leonardo, nobody had ever sketched bones, joints, muscles, veins, capillaries and nerves in such fine and accurate detail. Leonardo filled one hundred notebooks with these anatomical illustrations and was also the first person to draw sketches of a winged glider capable of flying a human through the air.


Although there are not many examples of completed artworks by Leonardo da Vinci, he was one of Renaissance Italy's greatest artists. He has provided inspiration and guidance to countless artists, scientists, engineers and doctors since his death almost five centuries ago.

GREAT CITIES- VENICE, GENOA AND FLORENCE

Introduction

Most of the significant achievements that came out of Renaissance Italy have been attributed to the northern cities of Genoa (Genoa), Florence (Firenze), and Venice (Venezia). It was in these northern cities that the environment of imagination and creativity and the generous spirit of patronage blossomed.




Genoa

Genoa is located on Italy's north-western coastline. It was considered one of Italy's greatest mercantile (commercial) powers during the Middle Ages. Genoa was also an important sea port during the time of the Roman Empire, due to its position at the crossroads of Italy and Northern Europe and its natural harbour, which is located in the deepest gulf of the Mediterranean Sea.

During the Middle Ages, Genoa was a rival power to the eastern Italian trading ports of Venice and Pisa. By the late 15th century, Genoa began looking to the west for trading opportunities, establishing commercial relations with Spain and Portugal. Genoa was the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, the Italian explorer who 'discovered' the Americas in 1492 after being commissioned by the Spanish Royals, Isabella and Ferdinand of Castile, to find an alternate route to India.




Venice

Venice, a city built on a group of islands located just off Italy's north-eastern coastline, was another one of Italy's major mercantile powers during the Middle Ages. For much of this period, Venice was known as the 'Queen of the Adriatic' (the sea which lies between Italy and the Dalmatian Coast of present-day Croatia) because of its strength in trade and commerce. It was also an important link between Western Europe and the Byzantine Empire to the east.

A famous Venetian merchant was Marco Polo. Owing to his many journeys to the Near East, Marco Polo spread word of foreign lands and peoples and imported 'exotic' merchandise into Italy. The knowledge sea traders like Marco Polo brought to Italy increased commercial activity there and in other parts of Europe.



Florence

Just as Italy is considered the heart of Renaissance Europe, Florence is considered the birthplace of Renaissance Italy. The name Florence is derived from the Latin word Florentia, which means 'flourishing town'. This describes perfectly what was happening in Florence during the Renaissance period.

Located in the Arno Valley in Italy's central-north, Florence was the centre of the European wool industry during the late Middle Ages. The city's strength in textiles attracted many merchants, who came to Florence to invest their money the thriving wool industry. This greatly boosted the Florentine economy, as did investment in the banking sector. The Florin, Florence's currency, was a gold coin. It was such a valuable currency that it was used throughout many parts of Europe during the Renaissance.

By the late 14th century, textile merchants held a great deal of political power and social influence in Florence. Many of these merchants became patrons of budding Florentine artists and scholars.

Most of the art and architecture which came out of Renaissance Florence has survived the test of time intact. Florence's extensive collection of Renaissance relics, combined with its long list of famous Renaissance figures, attests to the city's status as one of the major contributors to Western European culture since the late Middle Ages.

The Medicis (refer to chapter three) were the most powerful and famous of all the Florentine merchant families. The Medicis were patrons of many great renaissance figures such as Donatello, Leonardo da Vinci (refer to Topic two, Chapter three), Brunelleschi, Michelangelo and Botticelli.

THE RISE OF THE MERCHANT CLASS-THE MEDICI FAMILY

Introduction

During the late Middle Ages, Italy was positioned in the middle of many important trading routes between the Near East and the rest of Western Europe. With increased travel and trade between east and west, pioneered by sea traders such as Marco polo, Italy developed a thriving commercial sector.

The rise of the merchant classes

By the end of the 14th century, the city of Florence, in Italy's central-north, had established itself as the heart of the European wool industry. Wealthy textile merchants, such as the Medici family were the profiteers of this fruitful industry. Along with other wealthy families, they began investing their money in the banking sector to increase the profit they were gaining from trading. Before long, Florence had also become the centre of European finance.

These merchants (or traders) became the new 'rich' class, gradually taking power and prestige away from the nobility (or the land-owning upper class). Within this class of merchants, wealth was commonly held within families.

Patronage - the beginnings

The word 'patronage' is derived from the Latin word for father. It describes a trend that emerged in Renaissance Italy, whereby rich merchant families became the 'patrons' (or sponsors) of people who displayed talent or potential in esteemed fields, such as art, science, literature and philosophy.

Patronage became common in Italy during the 15th century. As the merchant classes continued to generate more and more wealth through trading and banking, some decided to put some of their money back into the community, rather than spend it all on upholding their increasingly lavish lifestyles.

Being a patron usually involved providing things like money, accommodation and materials to gifted individuals, so that they could devote all of their time and energy to excelling at their passions. Patronage enabled many great people of the Renaissance to create masterpieces of art and architecture and make ground-breaking scientific discoveries. See animation one




Patronage - the word spreads

Upon hearing about what was happening in Italy, budding artists, writers and inventors soon began travelling to Italy from other parts of Europe, lured by the prospect of being sponsored by a wealthy patron. After nurturing their talents, developing their skills and sometimes even achieving great fame and fortune, these foreigners would often return home to share the skills and knowledge they had acquired in Italy.

As the spirit of renaissance in the northern cities of Italy continued to flourish, competition amongst patrons increased. In particular, wealthy families within the merchant class began to compete against one another, to see who could commission the greatest artworks, books, discoveries and inventions. As much as they were concerned with helping their cities prosper, these patrons also wanted to be remembered themselves, by having the most amazing achievements of the Renaissance attributed to their philanthropy (generosity).
Guilds

During the Middle Ages, large groups of craftsmen and merchants often grouped together to form 'guilds'. A guild is an association of people of a similar occupation, who join together because they share a common interest or goal. During the Renaissance, this goal was often to support the advancement of a certain field, such as science or the arts. This is why many guilds also took to patronage during Renaissance times.

Examples of guilds in Renaissance Italy were the Artists Guild and the Textile Guild. The leader was known as il signore. During the Renaissance, as well as sponsoring people, guilds often concerned themselves with ensuring the general well-being of the city. When an issue surfaced that may have been of potential concern to the city, members of different guilds would meet in the town's central plaza to discuss possible solutions.
The Medici Family

The Medici family was the most respected of all the merchant families of Renaissance Italy. They held a great deal of power and influence in the city of Florence for a significant part of the 15th and 16th centuries. They were also the patrons of some of Italy's most famous artists and intellects.

The rise of the Medicis can be traced to the wealthy banker named Giovanni de Medici, who moved from Rome in 1397 to establish a branch of his Medici bank in Florence. Giovanni already had branches of this bank all over Italy and in other parts of Europe. By the 1420s the Medici family had become a dominant player in the textile industry, the spice trade and the international financial scene.

Given his considerable wealth, it was not long before Giovanni became an important figure in Florentine social and political life. When Giovanni de Medici died in 1429, his son Cosimo de Medici inherited his fortune.
Cosimo de Medici

As the son of a wealthy banker, Cosimo de Medici received a privileged education and was influenced by the philosophy of humanism during his adolescence. A firm believer in the theory that people should think independently in order to reach their highest potential, Cosimo continued the legacy of patronage that his father had begun to establish.


By the time of his death in 1464, Cosimo de Medici had done well to extend the Medici family's political and economic stronghold in Florence. While Cosimo had also maintained the spirit of patronage set by his father Giovanni, it was his grandson, Lorenzo de Medici, who was to become Florence's greatest and most generous patron.
Lorenzo de Medici - 'il Magnifico'

Lorenzo de Medici was the ruler of Florence for a little over two decades during the late 15th century. Lorenzo came to power in 1469, following a short period of rule by his father, Piero. During the period of Lorenzo's rule, the Florentine economy prospered and Florence earned its name as the most beautiful city in Europe.

Lorenzo de Medici was the most powerful and influential patron of the Medici family and is remembered as the greatest patron in the history of Italy. Lorenzo sponsored some of the most remarkable artists and inventors of the Renaissance, including Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo Buonarroti. For the support and commitment he displayed to the exceptional people that formed the Italian Renaissance movement, Florentines often referred to Lorenzo as 'il Magnifico' (the 'magnificent one').

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

Introduction

The word 'renaissance' often conjures up images of fine Italian paintings, colourful frescoes and beautiful sculptures and buildings. This is not surprising when one considers the amount of art, displaying completely new styles and techniques, which emerged from Europe and in particular Italy, during this phase of its history. Renaissance architecture also reflected a large shift in style, although it was very much inspired by classical Greek and Roman styles. The paintings, sculptures, frescoes and buildings that date back to the Renaissance together reflect the desire of their creators to see European society and culture returned to its former glory.

Changes in artistic style

Renaissance art differed considerably to artwork which emerged from Europe before the 14th century, in terms of both subject matter and technique. During the earlier and middle years of the medieval period, the dominant trend in art was the gothic style. Paintings dealt overwhelmingly with religious themes and artists used sharp, definite lines to depict humans.

Light and shadow

During the Renaissance, however, artists started using light and shadow to depict their human subjects more realistically. This technique is called chiaroscuro (which means 'light-dark' in Italian) and it was used to remove sharp outlines around objects. People and things appeared from the light and/or shadows in a picture, which made them seem much more life-like. The use of more vibrant colours was also used to create this realism.

Sometimes when Renaissance artists were painting a scene, they also drew their human subjects naked first, perfectly sketching their muscles and bones, and then added their clothing afterwards. This was done to ensure that people were painted accurately, in the most natural and true-to-life positions possible.

Perspective and depth

For the first time in history, art also began to show perspective. This meant that different objects were shown in correct proportion to one another and people were placed in true-to-life situations. Whereas art of the earlier Middle Ages was highly symbolic and generally did not often show people outside or in busy settings, Renaissance artworks recreated the more complex environments of everyday life.

In the field of visual arts, there are different methods artists use to give their paintings perspective. Renaissance artists created an illusion of distance and space in two dimensional pictures by including a visible horizon, which was usually positioned at the viewer's eye level. Artists also created perspective by making objects in the background smaller and less clear, just as they are in real life. By using these techniques to give their work perspective, artists added depth to their paintings.


Another technique that emerged during the Renaissance is called sfumato (which means 'smoky' in Italian). Sfuamto was used when artists wanted to give their painting a soft, hazy finish. They achieved this look by covering their paintings in thin layers of paint after they finished it.
New materials

Much of what made Renaissance art stand out so much from earlier art was the availability of new materials. Until the 15th century, paints were usually made by combining egg yolk with different colour pigments. This form of paint, known as tempera, did not, however, give artists much liberty in terms of time and use of colour. This is because the egg yolk dried very quickly and it was therefore difficult to mix new colours.

When artists began using various types of oils as a binding substance instead of egg yolk, they had more time to complete paintings and were able to experiment with their colours. This is because oil-based paints (made from substances such as sunflower and linseed oil) dried much slower, meaning that artists could create a variety of different colours on their canvas while they were painting their picture.

Frescoes

Another artistic trend which became very popular during the Renaissance was the use of frescoes, which are paintings that cover the surface of a wall or ceiling. The two main styles of fresco are buon fresco (when the painting is completed on wet plaster) and a secco (when the painting is completed on dry plaster).

Painting on wet plaster was much more common during the Renaissance and was a style used extensively in Italy to decorate the walls and ceilings of churches. Buon frescoes were very difficult to paint, as artists only had about 10-12 hours to complete their work before the plaster dried.

Renaissance architecture

Renaissance architects were very much inspired by classical Roman designs, remnants of which were visible in their everyday surroundings. In contrast to the darker, more chaotic styles of the earlier Middle Ages, buildings designed during the 14-16th centuries were 'softer' and almost always symmetrical. Many architects closely followed the rules of geometry to ensure that their buildings were mathematically perfect.

Unlike the asymmetrical façades (front coverings) of earlier, gothic-style architecture, the surfaces of Renaissance buildings were often rounded. The use of semi-circular arches - common in ancient Roman architecture - was also revived during the Renaissance. The large dome of the cathedral in Florence is a good example of Renaissance architecture that was inspired by a classical Roman style; it was modelled on the Roman Pantheon.

A famous person - Giotto di Bondone

Often referred to as the 'grandfather' of Italian art, Giotto di Bondone is thought to be the pioneer artist and architect of the Renaissance period. Born in a small village outside of Florence in 1267, he was the first artist to revert to the classical Greek and Roman styles, and also the first artist to adopt a naturalist (or life-like) style.


Although most of Giotto's artworks still dealt with religious themes, he used new techniques, such as light and shadow, to bring his human subjects to life. Appointed as the chief architect of Florence in 1334, Giotto designed the city's famous campanile (bell tower), which is located in the central Piazza del Duomo (Dome Plaza).

NEW INVENTIONS

Introduction

Many of the world's most ground-breaking inventions came out of Renaissance Europe. The years between the late 14th and early 17th centuries were characterised by imagination, experimentation and change in the schools of science, design and engineering.

This chapter will focus on three of the most significant inventions of the Renaissance period in Europe: the printing press, the telescope and the caravel. Each of these three inventions, along with the smaller, yet equally useful devices and contraptions that they inspired, changed the course of history.

The printing press

Invented in the mid-15th century by a German goldsmith named Johannes Gutenberg, the printing press was one of the most significant inventions of the Renaissance. Before the printing press revolutionised the world of literature, books were hand-written and many people did not even learn how to read. Although a system for printing characters had already been invented in China around 900 years earlier and in Korea around 200 years earlier, in Europe there had been no system for printing moveable type. These earlier systems of printing could only print fixed sequences of characters, which could not be moved around to create new combinations like Gutenberg's moveable-type press.

As Gutenberg was not famous during his lifetime, his exact date of birth is not known; it is believed to be around 1400. It is also believed that he first commenced work on his printing press in the late 1430s and had finished it by 1440. The first book to be printed in several volumes and multiple copies was the Holy Bible. It was published in Latin by Gutenberg and his associate, Johann Fust, in 1452.


It is hard to exaggerate the impact that printing has had on the modern world since Guttenberg's press was built over five centuries ago. In the field of literature, it enabled the fast flow of information and made possible the spread of new ideas throughout Europe. People who were previously illiterate now had motivation to learn how to read, which lead to a more educated population. This, in turn, made people more inquisitive. It also made people more inclined to challenge their existing beliefs about the world.

In terms of its impact on the world of art, prints enabled budding artists to see examples of other artists' work, which helped them to develop a wider variety of skills. Prior to the advent of printing in Europe, artists were only exposed to the ideas and styles of their mentors and immediate colleagues.
The telescope

For most of the Middle Ages, it was believed that the Earth was positioned at the centre of the universe. Prior to 1543, when a man named Nicolaus Copernicus published a book titled On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, this belief had gone largely unchallenged. In this famous book, Copernicus presented new theories on the structure of the solar system. In one of these theories he proposed the controversial notion that the Earth and planets in fact revolved around the sun and not vice versa.

About half a century after Copernicus made his astronomical hypothesis, a Dutch lens maker named Hans Lippershey created an instrument that would help prove that his bold statement was, in actual fact, accurate. The year was 1608 and Lippershey's ground-breaking invention has been credited as the world's very first telescope.

News of Lippershey's invention spread quickly. One year later, in 1609, an Italian scientist name Galileo Galilei, decided to try and make a better telescope. The telescope Galileo built could magnify things up to 30 times - ten times more than the one built by Hans Lippershey. It was quite simple by modern standards, consisting of a series of glass lenses which enabled Galileo to see things such as the craters on the surface of the moon.

It was not long before Galileo's new and improved telescope revolutionised people's understanding of astronomy. About one hundred years after Galileo's telescope was built, the famous scientist Isaac Newton refined its design by replacing the glass lenses with a single, rounded mirror. The invention of the telescope sparked an entire scientific revolution; from that point forward, the world of science would never been the same.



The caravel

The caravel is the name given to the large, masted vessels that were used by colonial powers during the Age of Exploration (or Age of Discovery), which began in the 15th century. Portuguese and Spanish explorers were the first to use caravels to navigate the uncharted waters of the Atlantic Ocean and African coastline, in their pursuit of 'undiscovered' territories and new trading routes.

The first caravels built by the Spanish and Portuguese were approximately 15 metres long. Their design was influenced by the designs of Chinese, Arabic and earlier European sea trading vessels, which were smaller and less sophisticated. These earlier ships did not have tall masts and large square sails like the caravels, and it is likely that they would not have had the capacity to safely cross the Atlantic Ocean (known in the 15th century as the 'Ocean Sea').

The invention of the caravel enabled Portuguese explorers like Bartholomew Dias and Vasco da Gama to travel around the rugged southern tip of Africa, through to the Indian Ocean. It also made possible Christopher Columbus' epic journey to the Americas, which sparked the onset of an era of conquest and colonisation. One of the crucial differences between these caravels and earlier ships was the addition of square-rigging (or square-shaped sails). This made the ships less vulnerable to strong winds.


For most of the Middle Ages, Italy had been opportunely positioned at the centre of Europe's vibrant trade network. After the caravel encouraged westward and southern maritime exploration, however, Italy was no longer at the forefront of European commercial activity.

Not only did the Age of Exploration have a far-reaching impact on European history, but it has had an extremely long-lasting impact on the entire world. Before this period, Europeans believed that the world consisted of Europe, Africa and Asia. Westward exploration turned this false understanding of world geography around completely, which is why the caravel is now considered one of the most significant inventions of the Renaissance.

With each new voyage and 'discovery', the Spanish and Portuguese monarchies gained much more dominance in Europe than they had previously held. As soon as the Spanish began colonising the Americas, the colonial race between Western Europe's naval powers was on. The greatest colonial powers during the Age of Exploration were Spain, Portugal, Britain, France and the Netherlands.